Last of the Mohicans

Last of the Mohicans — Historical Background
James Fenimore Cooper

During the 1800s, American literature began to evolve. Before this time, most Americans focused on European writers, but in the early part of the century, Washington Irving and others established a tradition of uniquely American fiction. During the 1820s-1840s, James Fenimore Cooper continued it.

James Fenimore Cooper is thought by some to be the first great American novelist. His works illustrate the relationship between people and the American landscape, raise questions about America’s westward expansion, and describe the conflicts and experiences between the Indians and white settlers. In all of his novels there is a celebration of the ideal of the independent individual which made his work distinctively American. The Last of the Mohicans, set during the era of the French & Indian War, is one of his most important works.

The French & Indian War
The French & Indian War was the 4^thof a series of conflicts on the American continent (late17th c. — mid. 18^th c.) between New France & the English colonies. Part of a larger struggle between England & France for dominance in world trade & naval power, war bled over into colonies.

Colonial struggles up to now had ended in a stalemate. This one turned into a war for control of the North American Continent:

Comparison of the French & English Colonies

	English Colonies	French Colonies
Population	Larger — 1,250,000 Concentrated	Smaller — 80,000 Spread out, scattered
Settlement	Firmly established; Self-sufficient Agriculture — permanent settlers	Fur trade w/ Indians. Didn’t encourage permanent settlement. More dependent on European imports
Government	13 colonies w/separate governments; difficulty uniting	Highly centralized. King was sovereign. Plans of action could be carried out more efficiently
Indian Relations	Generally poor relations. Had pushed them off land. Only Iroquois Nations sided with them (including the Mohawk)	Generally friendly relations. Treated Indians well (reliance on trade with them). Most tribes supported French (including the Huron).
Relations between Colonists & European Troops	Tension between American volunteers & British Redcoats	Tension between Canadian soldiers & leader and the French army

Phases of the French & Indian War:

First Phase (1755)	Second phase (1756-57)	Third Phase (1758-59)
Struggle for control of the Ohio Valley. George Washington surrenders Fort Necessity to French. War begins. Mostly local, North American conflict at this time.	Governments of France & England formally open hostilities. French dominate. Siege of Fort William Henry — Aug 9, 1757 occurs at the end of this phase.	William Pitt organizes English offensive. English dominate. Fall of Quebec (1759) ends American phase of war.

The Siege & Massacre of Fort William Henry — The True Story

The Location

Lake George was an area of wilderness separating the English & the French territories. North of the lake was Fort Carillon (guarding French Canada). South of the lake was Fort Edward (marking the northernmost point of the English push north).

The English had won control of the lake in a battle with the French in 1755. They built a road linking Fort Edward to the lake.

Fort William Henry was built to protect the lake, guard the road & act as a launching point in battles against the French.

Tensions Mount

1756- General Daniel Webb assumed command of the fort, planning an offensive against the French.

At both ends of the lake British & French are preparing for battle. Raids, counter-raids & scouting missions occur over the next year.

1757- General Marquis de Montcalm, French Commander of Fort Carillon, begins maneuvering to take Fort William Henry from the English. His forces included:

6 French Regular battalions (2570 soldiers)

Canadian militia (approximately 2000 men)

300 volunteers

between 1500 to 1800 Indians from various tribes

artillery units of 200 men with 36 cannon & 4 mortars

Fort William Henry was now lead by Scottish Lt. Colonel George Monro (Webb had moved to Fort Edward). His forces included:

2372 men - total

a maximum of 500 could man the fort — the rest were in camp to the east of the fort

no defensive preparations

The Siege

August 2&3- The French were slowly moving toward the Fort, building a road & entrenchments on the way. Snipers were positioned, taking out Englishmen here & there. British anxiously await reinforcements.

August 7- A message from Webb to Monro denying reinforcements & encouraging surrender was intercepted by the French. Montcalm’s aid-de-camp, Captain Bougainville, approached the English with this letter offering truce if they surrendered.

August 9- Fort William Henry’s officers met and later posted a flag of truce over the fort.

Montcalm gave generous terms of surrender — though defeated, British retained honor:

All of troops could retreat to Fort Edward

Could fly their colors & take a cannon

Their sick & wounded would be returned when well

British had to promise not to fight for 18 months

1 British officer to remain hostage until a French escort going with the troops returned

The Massacre

The European agreement disappointed the Indians. Their usual reward for participation in battle was the booty of enemy supplies, alcohol, weapons, etc.

After the British evacuated, they attacked the fort in order to take what was left behind. Several of the wounded still residing there were killed. French troops restored order.

Hostile Indians stayed in the area of the fort. The English march to Fort Edward was delayed at Montcalm’s suggestion. He posted French guards on the English who were harassed by the Indians.

August 10 — the English assembled by companies for the march back to Fort Edward with a French escort of 200 men. When they left, the Indians killed 17 more of the wounded at the encampment.

At the rear of the retreating English column was a Massachusetts regiment. The Indians attacked them. Some were killed; many fled.

Many of those present at the massacre reported hundreds (up to 1500) killed. They called the attack a "slaughter" that went on for up to 3 hours. (What we see in the movie is an illustration of some of these accounts).

Reality: according to the army reports, 129 English were killed & wounded including those at the siege.

Some men were killed by the Indians when they resisted, but the attack was mostly aimed at pilfering the goods of the English & collecting prisoners, not slaughtering them. (Soldiers were worth more alive than dead. They could be ransomed).

August 14- Many men did not arrive at Fort Edward with the British troops on this date, but most of these were men who had escaped into the forest during the attack. They made their way back to the fort over the next weeks and months..

An additional note: contrary to the depiction in the movie, Colonel Monro was not killed during the attack. He arrived at Fort Edward, under French guard, on August 14.

According to Ian K. Steele’s Betrayals, one of the most respected studies of the siege, the maximum number killed on August 19 "including those who happily or unhappily lived the rest of their lives in the villages and forests of New France’s Indian allies, could not have numbered more than 184." He also states that it could have been as few as 69.

The End

The French burned Fort William Henry. Today a reconstruction of it stands there.

The sight Fort Edward is now marked only with a few historical landmark signs.

Fort Carillon (also known as Ticonderoga) still stands today as it did then.

Suggestions for your Essay

Because most of the 1301 classes are requiring a short one-page review, you might want to limit yourself to one of the following suggestions:

The tensions and conflicts that result in the collision of cultures in America at this time are a central part of the movie. Pick one of the following pairs and discuss how the tensions between the two groups are illustrated throughout the movie:

Native Americans & Europeans
The English and the American Colonists

In what ways did the movie hint at the coming break between the American colonies and England?
Discuss the portrayal of the Siege of Fort William Henry and the massacre that followed. In what ways was it historically correct? What inaccuracies were portrayed?
Michael Mann, director and co-screenwriter of the movie, has criticized James Fenimore Cooper’s book as racist and shallow (Cooper played heavily on the concept of his day — the "noble savage" who would benefit from assimilation into European society). How did Mann portray the Native Americans in the movie?